In traditional Chinese medicine, there are roughly 13,000 medicinals used in China and over 100,000 medicinal recipes recorded in the ancient literature.[1] This is a partial list of the more significant and noteworthy medicines. Plant elements and extracts are the most common elements used in medicines.[2] In the classic Handbook of Traditional Drugs from 1941, 517 drugs were listed - 442 were plant parts, 45 were animal parts, and 30 were minerals.[2]
Ginseng is the most broadly used substance for the most broad set of alleged cures. Powdered pre-calcified antler, horns, teeth, and bones are second in importance to ginseng, with claims ranging from curing cancer to improving immune system function to curing impotence.
Glue made from the hide of donkeys is made into pellets for use in making teas.[3]
Deer penis is commonly sold in Chinese pharmacies.[4] and served in specialized restaurants such as the Guo Li Zhuang restaurant in Beijing.[5] The deer penis is typically very large and, under TCM it must be extracted from the deer whilst still alive.[6] Often it is then sliced into small pieces, typically by women and then roasted and dried in the sun and then preserved while the deer looks on.[6][7]
China banned deer penis during the 2008 Summer Olympics.[8] Under TCM it is believed that deer penis wine is an effective remedy for athletic injuries, to enhance male virility, and to be an aphrodisiac.[9]
Flying squirrel feces is used raw in a belief that it will "invigorate" the blood and dry-fried in a belief that it will stop bleeding.[10][11][12][13][14][15]
The text Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology notes that flying squirrel feces has a "distinct odor" that "may decrease patient compliance" with ingesting it.[16]
It is believed to have uses for amenorrhea, menses pain, postpartum abdominal pain, epigastric pain, and chest pain.[11] It is boiled in a decoction with other herbs prior to ingestion. If it is to be used in a formula to stop bleeding (dark purple uterine bleeding with clots, retained lochia due to stasis), it is dry fried prior to making the decoction.[10][11][12][13][14][15] Flying squirrel feces has been associated with typhus fever.[17]
Endangered rhinoceros horn is used as an antifever agent, because it is believed to "cool the blood".[18] The black market in rhinoceros horn decimated the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years.[19]
Popular "medicinal" tiger parts from poached animals include tiger penis, believed to improve virility, and tiger eyes.[20][21] Laws protecting even critically endangered species such as the Sumatran Tiger fail to stop the display and sale of these items in open markets.[22]
Snake oil is the most widely known Chinese medicine in the west, due to extensive marketing in the west in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and wild claims of its efficacy to treat many maladies.[23][24] Snake oil is a traditional Chinese medicine used to treat joint pain by rubbing it on joints as a liniment.[23]
It is claimed that this is “plausible” because oils from snakes are higher in eicosapentaenoic acid than some other sources. But there are no replicated studies showing that rubbing it on joints has any positive effect, or that drinking it in sufficient quantity to get an effect from the acid is not dangerous because of the many other compounds in the oil.[23][24]
Toad (Bufo spp.) secretions are an ingredient used in Traditional Chinese teas and have been found to be highly toxic and possibly lethal.[3]
Toad headed gecko (ge jie) is gutted and beheaded then dried and crushed, under a belief that it treats asthma, impotence, improves male endurance, and treats coughs and colds.[25]
Widespread medicinal use of turtle plastron is of concern to conservationists.[26]
Seahorse fish is a fundamental ingredient in therapies for a variety of disorders, including asthma, arteriosclerosis, incontinence, impotence, thyroid disorders, skin ailments, broken bones, heart disease, as well as to facilitate childbirth and even as an aphrodisiac.[27]
Shark fin soup is traditionally regarded as beneficial for health in East Asia, and its status as an "elite" dish has led to huge demand with the increase of affluence in China, devastating shark populations.[28]
Chinese beetle (Mylabris phalerata, Ban mao) is believed under TCM to treat skin lesions, because it causes them.[29][30] It contains the toxic chemical cantharidin.[31]
Powdered centipede (wu gong) is believed under TCM to treat lockjaw, seizures, convulsions, skin lesions, and pain.[32] It is toxic.[32]
Hornets nest (lu feng fang) is used under a belief that it can treat skin disorders and ringworm.[33] It may be toxic.[31]
Leech (shui zhi) is believed under TCM to treat amenorrhea, abdominal and chest pain, and constipation.[34] It is toxic and so is believed under TCM to treat toxics.[29][34]
Sorpions (quan xie) are ground into a powder and mixed with water.[35] Scorpions are poisonous. Powdered scorpion is toxic, so is believed to be usable to treat other toxins.[35]
Various fungi are used in TCM. Some may contain dangerous toxins, such as the mycotoxin 3-nitropropionic acid.[36]
The supernatural mushroom (lingzhi mushroom, Chinese “linh chi” = “supernatural mushroom”, "reishi mushroom" in Japan) encompasses several fungal species of the genus Ganoderma, and most commonly refers to the closely related species, Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma tsugae. G. lucidum enjoys special veneration in East Asia, where it has been used as a medicinal mushroom in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years,[37] making it one of the oldest mushrooms known to have been used medicinally.
There are thousands of herbs that are used as medicines.[38] The following list of herbs represents a very small portion of the pharmacopoeia.
Aconite root (wolfsbane) is a root commonly used in TCM.[39] It was once so commonly used it was called "the King of the 100 Herbs".[40][41]
Aconite root contains what is called "the Queen of Poisons", the highly toxic neurotoxin aconitine.[42] There is no antidote. It is quickly absorbed via mucous membranes, but also via skin. Respiratory paralysis, in very high doses also cardiac arrest, leads to death. A few minutes after ingestion paresthesia starts, which includes tingling in the oral region. This extends to the whole body, starting from the extremities. Anesthesia, sweating and cooling of the body, nausea and vomiting and other similar symptoms follow. Sometimes there is strong pain, accompanied by cramps, or diarrhea.[43]
When a person has a negative reaction to the highly toxic aconite root, some proponents of classical Chinese medicine think that this is because it was either processed incorrectly or planted on the wrong place or on the wrong day of the year, i.e., for supernatural or astrological reasons, not because of the toxins.[41][44]
The Chinese also used Aconitum poisons both for hunting[45] and for warfare.[46] Aconitine is well known in the west for its use in poisoning historic figures or in literature. Aconitine was also made famous by its use in Oscar Wilde's 1891 story Lord Arthur Savile's Crime. Aconite also plays a prominent role in James Joyce's Ulysses, in which the protagonist Leopold Bloom's father used pastilles of the chemical to commit suicide. It was the poison used by George Henry Lamson in 1881 to murder his brother-in-law in order to secure an inheritance. Lamson had learnt about aconitine as a medical student from Professor Robert Christison, who had taught that it was undetectable—but forensic science had improved since Lamson's student days.[47][48][49] In 1953 aconitine was used by a Soviet biochemist and poison developer Grigory Mairanovsky in experiments with prisoners in the secret NKVD laboratory in Moscow. He admitted killing around 10 people using the poison.[50]
Camellia tea from India, Sri Lanka, Java, Japan is used in TCM for aches and pains, digestion, depression, detoxification, as an energizer and, to prolong life.[51]
Cayanneis believed under TCM to be a prophalactic medicine.[52]
Chinese cucumber (Trichosanthes kirilowii) is believed to treat tumors, reduce fevers, swelling and coughing, abscesses, amenorrhea, jaundice, and polyuria.
Extracts are extremely toxic. Side effects include hormone changes, allergic reaction, fluid in the lungs or brain, bleeding in the brain, heart damage, seizures, and fever.[53]
Chrysanthemum flowers (Ju Hua ) are used in TCM under a belief that it treats headaches, fever, dizziness and dry eyes. It is also popular for use in teas as a beverage.[54]
Cocklebur fruit (Xanthium, cang er zi) is one of the most important herbs in TCM, which believes it can be used to treat sinus congestion, chronic nasal obstructions and discharges, and respiratory allergies.[55]
Xanthium is toxic and causes vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain.[56]
Cow dipper (sheng ban xia, Pinellia ternata) is believed under TCM to be the strongest of all TCM herbs for removing phlegm.[57] Cow dipper is highly toxic to humans.[58] Traditional Chinese medicine advocates believe toxicity can be reduced in their method of preparation.[57]
Croton seed (Croton tiglium)is believed under TCM to treat gastrointestinal disorders, convulsions, and skin lesions. It is often used with rhubarb, dried ginger and apricot seed.[59] Croton contains cancer causing chemicals.[60]
Ginger root Zingiber officinale) has been used in China for over 2,000 years under a belief that it aids digestion and treats uspet stomach, diarrhea, and nausea. TCM also teaches that it helps treat arthritis, colic, diarrhea, and heart conditions. Traditional Chinese medicine believes that it treats the common cold, flu-like symptoms, headaches, and menstrual cramps. Today, health care professionals commonly recommend to help prevent or treat nausea and vomiting associated with motion sickness, pregnancy, and cancer chemotherapy. It is also used as a digestive aid for mild stomach upset, as support in inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, and may even be used in heart disease or cancer.[61]
Ginkgo biloba seeds are crushed and believed under TCM to treat asthma.[62] Ginkgo has been used in TCM for nearly 5,000 years.[63] Further studies to establish the efficacy both as used under TCM beliefs and for proposed uses as an evidence based medicine are required.[63]
Ginseng root is the most widely sold traditional Chinese medicine. The name "ginseng" is used to refer to both American (Panax quinquefolius) and Asian or Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng), which belong to the species Panax and have a similar chemical makeup. Siberian ginseng or Eleuthero (Eleutherococcus senticosus) is another type of plant. Asian ginseng has a light tan, gnarled root that often looks like a human body with stringy shoots for arms and legs. In ancient times, herbalists thought that because of the way ginseng looks it could treat many different kinds of syndromes, from fatigue and stress to asthma and cancer. In traditional Chinese medicine, ginseng was often combined with other herbs and used often to bring longevity, strength, and mental alacrity to its users. Asian ginseng is believed to enhance the immune system in preventing and treating infection and disease. Several clinical studies report that Asian ginseng can improve immune function. Studies have found that ginseng seems to increase the number of immune cells in the blood, and improve the immune system's response to a flu vaccine. In one study, 227 participants received either ginseng or placebo for 12 weeks, with a flu shot administered after 4 weeks. The number of colds and flu were two-thirds lower in the group that took ginseng.[64]
Ginseng contains stimulants, but may produce side effect including high blood pressure, low blood pressure, and mastalgia.[65] Ginseng may also lead to induction of mania in depressed patients who mix it with antidepressants.[66] One of the most common and characteristic symptoms of acute overdose of ginseng from the genus Panax is bleeding. Symptoms of mild overdose with Panax ginseng may include dry mouth and lips, excitation, fidgeting, irritability, tremor, palpitations, blurred vision, headache, insomnia, increased body temperature, increased blood pressure, edema, decreased appetite, increased sexual desire, dizziness, itching, eczema, early morning diarrhea, bleeding, and fatigue.[16] Symptoms of gross overdose with Panax ginseng may include nausea, vomiting, irritability, restlessness, urinary and bowel incontinence, fever, increased blood pressure, increased respiration, decreased sensitivity and reaction to light, decreased heart rate, cyanotic facial complexion, red face, seizures, convulsions, and delirium.[38]
Marketing literature for goji berry (wolfberry) products including several "goji juices" suggest that wolfberry polysaccharides have extensive biological effects and health benefits, although none of these claims have been supported by peer-reviewed research.
A May 2008 clinical study published by the peer-reviewed Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine indicated that parametric data, including body weight, did not show significant differences between subjects receiving Lycium barbarum berry juice and subjects receiving the placebo; the study concluded that subjective measures of health were improved and suggested further research in humans was necessary.[67] This study, however, was subject to a variety of criticisms concerning its experimental design and interpretations.[68]
Published studies have also reported possible medicinal benefits of Lycium barbarum, especially due to its antioxidant properties,[69] including potential benefits against cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases,[70][71] vision-related diseases[72] (such as age-related macular degeneration and glaucoma[73]), having neuroprotective properties[74] or as an anticancer[75] and immunomodulatory agent.[76]
Wolfberry leaves may be used to make tea, together with Lycium root bark (called dìgǔpí; 地 骨 皮 in Chinese), for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). A glucopyranoside isolated from wolfberry root bark have inhibitory activity in vitro against human pathogenic bacteria and fungi.[77][78]
Horny goat weed (Epimedium spp., Yin Yang Huo, 淫羊藿) is believed to be an aphrodisiac.[79] Exploitation of wild populations is having potentially serious consequences for the long-term survival of several species.[80]
Rhubarb (大黄) is a large root and was once one of the first herbs that was imported from China.[81]
Thunder Vine (lei gong teng, Radix tripterygii wilfordii, or lei gong teng) use is on the rise in TCM because of a belief under TCM that it treats arthritis, relieves pain and reduces joint swelling.[82] It is an extremely toxic.[82] Within two to three hours after ingestion, a patient may begin to have gastrointestinal problems, headache, dizziness, severe vomiting (sometimes with blood), chills, high fever, and irregular heart beat. Damage to the central nervous system follows, as well as internal bleeding of the (real) organs, then their necrosis.[82]
Strychnine tree seeds (Strychnos nux-vomica, Ma Quan Zi) are marketed and sold with a claim to treat diseases of the respiratory tract, anemia, and geriatric complaints. It contains toxic strychnine, so can also be used as a poison for rodents.[83] Dan Besky writes in his Materia Medica that "due to the small difference between the therapeutic and toxic doses, use of strychni semen (ma quian zi) bears a high risk of inducing severe poisoning and for this reason should be regarded as an obsolete drug".[84]
Sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua, Qing Hao) is believed under TCM to treat fever, headache, dizziness, stopping bleeding, and alternating fever and chills.[85]
Sweet wormwood had fallen out of common use under TCM until it was rediscovered in 1970's when the Chinese Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments (340 AD) was found. This pharmacopeia contained recipes for a tea from dried leaves, prescribed for fevers (not specifically malaria). The plant extracts in TCM have the antimalarial artemisinin.[86]
However, it has been questioned as to whether the TCM tea made from Sweet wormwood is effective, since artemesinin is not soluble in water and the concentrations in TCM medicines are considered insufficient to treatment malaria.[87][88][89]
Salix genus plants were used since the time of Hippocrates (400 BC) when patients were advised to chew on the bark to reduce fever and inflammation. Willow bark has been used throughout the centuries in China and Europe to the present for the treatment of pain (particularly low back pain and osteoarthritis), headache, and inflammatory conditions such as bursitis and tendinitis. The bark of white willow contains salicin, which is a chemical similar to aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is thought to be responsible for the pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory effects of the herb. In the 1829, salicin was used to develop aspirin. White willow appears to be slower than aspirin to bring pain relief, but its effects may last longer.[90]
Arsenic sulfide (Realgar, xiong huang) is a toxic mineral used in TCM under the belief that it kills intestinal parasites, treats sore throats, treat swellings, abscesses, itching, and rashes.[91]
Arsenic is a poison.[91] It is most commonly sold as a powder and given as a pill or capsule, although it is also incorporated into a mixture with other TCM medicinal ingredients.[91]
Asbestos ore (Actinolite) is used to treat impotence and is toxic.[92]
Lead oxide (Galena, mi tuo seng) is believed under TCM to treat ringworm, skin disorders and ulcers. It is crushed and taken orally or used on the skin. Lead is toxic to humans.[93]
Despite its toxicity, sulfide of mercury (cinnabar) has historically been used in Chinese medicine, where it is called zhūshā (朱砂), and was highly valued in Chinese Alchemy. It was also referred to as dān (丹), meaning all of Chinese alchemy, cinnabar, and the "elixir of immortality". Cinnabar (HgS, sulfide of mercury) has been used in Traditional Chinese medicine as a sedative for more than 2000 years, and has been shown to have sedative and toxic effects in mice.[94]
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